The searches were conducted during February 2023 in the Capella library online database, Web of Science, and PubMed. The search topic in all three databases was “progression of reading ability in children diagnosed with autism.” Relevant free text phrases were added to each unique search query. Similarly, the free text keywords were occasionally trimmed to incorporate alternate word endings. For example, a combination of search phrases like “reading ability,” “reading comprehension,” “reading difficulty,” and “progression of reading” in children with autism were applied to yield maximum search results. Manual reviews of reference lists of relevant journal articles augmented database searches, resulting in a few new papers in the literature review. The search criteria produced 17 peer-reviewed journal articles on the topic. Search results were restricted to recent (within ten years) English-language articles about the research topic. Studies that included primary data collection and testing of literacy skills were prioritized, yielding the final ten articles.
Literature Review
Autism is a neurological disorder characterized by the early onset of social interaction and communication impairment. Many children with autism show an apparent aversion to change, exhibiting repetitive behaviors and interests to feel balanced (Nally et al., 2018; Brady et al.,2021). These features can have a detrimental impact on daily life, such as difficulty reading and comprehending text. Several studies have looked at reading abilities and growth in autistic children, with the bulk focusing on the issue of reading comprehension (Bullen et al., 2022; Plavnick et al., 2016; Nally et al., 2018; McIntyre et al., 2018). These studies investigate the difficulties autistic children have in understanding written passages or texts. The researchers assessed four aspects of reading ability: word identification, nonword decoding, text reading accuracy, and text comprehension.
Young children with autism show interest in letters and print but struggle with reading when they join the school. When children enter preparation school, 33 to 65 percent with autism show early signs of reading and comprehension difficulties (Bullen et al., 2022). Even when autistic children are cognitively normal and verbally able, only 25-30% remain minimally verbal, speaking a few words by age 5 (Brady et al., 2021; Kljajevic, 2022). It means they have difficulty reading or not comprehending the materials they read on blackboards, in books, or in instructions. The data contrast with the generally known traits of a typically developing child of similar cognitive ability, in which a higher number achieve high reading ability at the same age (Kim et al., 2018). It suggests that many autistic kids are not responding well to reading training or that the instructions are not set up to help them succeed. In any case, this demonstrates the necessity of understanding how autistic children approach reading as early as preschool.
Most children develop their emergent literacy skills during the preschool years. A better knowledge of early reading skills in autistic children is required to guide intervention approaches and inform future studies. Assessment of reading, including those early emergent reading-related skills, help researchers understand each child’s strength and needs. Davidson and Weismer (2014) noted that children with poor language abilities later have poor reading outcomes, and deficits begin early during the emergent literacy period. High-quality assessment can identify areas for development and assist in monitoring progress following interventions. In this setting, research has tailored evaluation for young children on the autistic spectrum. For instance, studies use short and simple instructions, plenty of time to respond, provide adequate scaffolding, and allow breaks between tasks (Grindle et al., 2020). Besides, the researchers have used appropriate reinforcement, visuals, and visual schedules to assess the reading and comprehension abilities of autistic kids. It is important that children understand what is needed to complete the task, including using short and simple instructions and allowing breaks in between tasks to improve outcomes.
Most autistic children have reading profiles with stronger decoding abilities and weaker reading comprehension. Davidson and Weismer (2014) investigated whether the profile was visible in autistic children and looked at concurrent and longitudinal factors of early reading. In the sample size, Davidson and Weismer (2014) found 62% of the children had a higher alphabet and lower meaning comprehension. According to this study, reading ability at age 5.5 was predicted by nonverbal cognition and expressive language at a mean age of 2.5 years (Davidson & Weismer, 2014). Despite accurate decoding skills, most research shows autistic children exhibit difficulties with reading comprehension. Other studies also indicate many children in the spectrum showed a significant discrepancy between reading comprehension and word reading accuracy (Henderson et al., 2014; Grindle et al., 2020; Kljajevic, 2022). These findings highlight the significance of early language abilities as a foundation for reading in autistic children.
Letter-sound knowledge, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and story comprehension are essential for literacy performance. Research suggests that vocabulary, letter-sound knowledge, phonological awareness, and story comprehension strongly predict later literacy performance in all children, including those on the autism spectrum (Brady et al., 2021; Nally et al., 2018; McIntyre et al., 2018). For instance, vocabulary tests if the child can name infrequently and frequently encountered words or point to labeled words from the reading material. Story comprehension is assessed if the kids can attend to a book for at least five minutes, answer questions, and ability make predictions. According to McIntyre et al. (2018), there is a strong correlation between structural language components, like phonology, syntax, semantics, and morphology, and reading comprehension. Therefore, assessing the child’s letter-sound knowledge, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and story comprehension is essential.
Every child with autism presents differently and may have poor comprehension skills in the presence of otherwise strong reading abilities. Children with high-quality reading at home and excellent instruction at school have better communication, language, and reading (Nally et al., 2018; Davidson & Weismer (2014). According to Davidson and Weismer (2014), home and preschool environments could play some role in developing emergent literacy, especially when focused on age-appropriate skills. As a result of exposure to high-quality reading, they learn more and have better life-long outcomes. The social and life skills can be taught in the context of high-quality reading instructions besides increasing the child’s language. However, there is a need for positive behavior support to help autistic kids to be successful in accessing the instructional materials available. Combining this positive behavior support with innovative technology, such as tables, can help assess reading mechanisms. Plavnick et al. (2016) suggested that individualized behavior analytic programs can support a computer-based reading program for some children with autism. One of the importance of technology in assessing kids with autism is the ability to assist the researcher with understanding more about how the children interact with the text. The outcomes can help researchers better refine instructions for autistic children.
Using evidence-based practices that work with typical children and tweaking them a little makes it possible to incorporate children on the spectrum into the classroom. Primarily, it entails having a few pieces of literature specific to children with autism, like graphic organizer work, grouping, and shared storybook reading (Kim et al., 2018). For the most part, researchers take the evidence-based strategies and make them more visual to help children with autism understand the focus. Recent studies show that children with autism from ages seven to ten would be more likely to be in the lowest performance bracket for phonemic awareness (Nally et al., 2018). For instance, when autistic children took standardized examinations, they scored in the lowest range for phonemic awareness. Nally et al. (2018) noted that emergent reading behaviors should include print awareness, oral language skills, and conventions. Understanding the sounds that make up a language is essential for deciphering and blending words.
In conclusion, a growing body of research indicates that children with autism may experience reading and learning challenges. Yet, the data supporting their impairments in various reading skills is conflicting, and little is known about how reading abilities distinguish autistic children from typical kids (Bullen et al., 2022). The current studies systematically reviewed the research investigating reading progression in kids with autism. All comparisons that included standardized tests revealed that autistic children’s scores were within the range of the general population. According to most studies, autistic children performed better on word reading tests than on nonword tasks (Nally et al.,2018; Bullen et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2018; Davidson & Weismer, 2014). Other kids displayed accurate reading but poor comprehension, consistent with a reading profile for hyperlexia. These studies contribute to scant empirical literature regarding early reading abilities in young children with autism.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Studies
The main strength of studies explored in the literature review is using primary data to evaluate the reading ability of children with autism. The rigorous sampling method ensures that only qualified participants are recruited for the research. For example, Davidson and Weismer (2014) included only participants who completed all three subsets on the Test of Early Reading Ability and Third Edition (TERA-3) on the fourth visit. The detailed review of the clinical status of autism, interview with parents, and consolidation of all qualifying factors were evident across all the studies. Besides the quality of participant recruitment, the studies presented the findings accurately without any bias. For instance, it would be expected that autistic children will perform dismally in reading and comprehension skills. However, the studies established that autistic kids scored similarly to normal children on word reading and spelling except for comprehension (Kaljejevic, 2022); Brady et al. (2021); Nally et al. (2017); McIntyre et al. (2018). The appropriate procedure for data collection, seeking consent, and participant privacy were strictly followed in all the research. Besides, most of the studies used a sufficiently large sample size, which can be used to generalize reading abilities in autistic children.
The studies contribute to the scant literature on reading ability for autistic with a few limitations. For instance, some of the studies do not directly account for literacy exposure, which significantly contributes to literacy conventions (Davidson & Weismer, 2014; Grindle et al., 2020; Henderson et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2018). Skills learned in various in-home, and early childhood educational approaches could have impacted early reading ability. Similarly, the effects of these studies may not be generalized across students with limited or no verbal communication skills (Kim et al., 2018). These factors should be incorporated as possible predictors in future studies of emergent literacy for young children on the autism spectrum.
Cognitive Theory
Much of the research reviewed in the literature explores the cognitive abilities of children with autism. Therefore, the cognitive theory is the central concept evaluated by testing the kids’ reading and comprehension abilities. The theory focuses on information processing and the effective use of the brain in relation to the environment. These studies consider development stages, the understanding of multiple forms of intelligence, problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity that differentiate reading abilities in normal children from autistic kids. For instance, Davidson and Weismer (2014), Grindle et al. (2020), Henderson et al. (2014), and Kim et al. (2018) evaluated the receptive and expressive language skills, reading abilities, and parental report on socialization and early reading ability of children with autism at different stages of development. Using the tests and scoring the kid’s reading and comprehension evaluates their intelligence, a derivative of cognitive theory.
The studies attempt to evaluate how autism impacts reading and comprehension abilities, which are the fundamental aspects of cognitive theory. Kaljejevic (2022) and McIntyre et al. (2018) compared the performance of typically developing children in the same age group on word reading, spelling, and numerical operations with that of autistic children. The research entailed administering audio and written text and answering comprehension questions to test memory and reasoning abilities. The research findings explain the behaviors of autistic children by understanding the thought processes, a fundamental principle of cognitive theory.
References
Brady, N. C., Kosirog, C., Fleming, K., & Williams, L. (2021). Predicting progress in word learning for children with autism and minimal verbal skills. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 13(1). Web.
Bullen, J. C., Zajic, M. C., McIntyre, N., Solari, E., & Mundy, P. (2022). Patterns of math and reading achievement in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 92(92), 101933. Web.
Davidson, M. M., & Ellis Weismer, S. (2014). Characterization and prediction of early reading abilities in children on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(4), 828–845. Web.
Grindle, C., Kurzeja, O., Tyler, E., Saville, M., Hughes, J. C., Hastings, R. P., & Brown, F. J. (2020). Teaching children with autism reading comprehension skills using online reading instruction: preliminary evaluation of headsprout reading comprehension. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 23(1), 1–12. Web.
Henderson, L. M., Clarke, P. J., & Snowling, M. J. (2014). Reading comprehension impairments in autism spectrum disorders. L’Année Psychologique, Vol. 114(4), 779–797. Web.
Kim, S. Y., Rispoli, M., Lory, C., Gregori, E., & Brodhead, M. T. (2018). The effects of a shared reading intervention on narrative story comprehension and task engagement of students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,48(10), 3608-3622. Web.
Kljajevic, V. (2022). Literacy and numeracy in children on autism spectrum disorder. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 7, 123–129. Web.
McIntyre, N. S., Oswald, T. M., Solari, E. J., Zajic, M. C., Lerro, L. E., Hughes, C., Devine, R. T., & Mundy, P. C. (2018). Social cognition and reading comprehension in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders or typical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 54, 9–20. Web.
Nally, A., Healy, O., Holloway, J., & Lydon, H. (2018). An analysis of reading abilities in children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 47, 14–25. Web.
Plavnick, J. B., Thompson, J. L., Englert, C. S., Mariage, T., & Johnson, K. (2016). Mediating access to headsprout early reading for children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Behavioral Education, 25(3), 357–378. Web.