In the aftermath of the World War II societies across al Europe entered a new period in their social and cultural transformation. However, the biggest impact was felt by the countries that had been parts of the Alliance, including, of course, the United Kingdom. To deal with the consequences of mobilization and industrialization, the policy makers were aiming to make education accessible for all social circles in Britain. In particular, the establishment wished to provide the working class with more opportunities in the spheres of education and social mobility (Black, Pemberton, 2017). In practice it resulted in the establishment of 1944 Education Act, that facilitated the availability of free public education to all British citizens. This paper aims to provide a detailed analysis of this Actâs successes and failures, as well as the associated context, ideology, and consequences. It discusses the key figures and contents of the Act and relies on academic literature to strengthen the analysis points. Finally, it attempts to summarize the impact the contents of the Act had on the development of post-war society in Britain.
Key Figures and Context
The social development of Britain in the second half of 1940s and the entirety of 1950s can be characterized by the sense of post-war insecurity and the emerging meritocracy. The post-war discourse around equality could be summarized by the assumption that a person could in charge of their success and that said success is largely dependent on their choices (Meredith, 2020). The policymakers, however, recognized, at least to a degree, the social barriers that were in place for the less privileged classes. Many of said barriers were only intensified by the consequences of war and the associated with-it socioeconomic destructions. Hence the proponents of the reform were aiming to combat and slay one of the âgiantsâ threatening the British society, the giant of ignorance. The processing associated with the Act was designed to improve the opportunities available for working class people to facilitate their integration into society and prevent criminalization.
Such ambitious goals required the policymakers to effectively revise the education system as a whole, enforcing the new approach in secondary schools across the country. A large-scale impactful work was effectively conducted within a few years, with schools presenting their plans to the development of primary and secondary education to the Board of Education (Roberts, 2020). Arguably, it was largely made possible by the lack of effective opposition to the Act: the left and the right came together around the basic principles of the policy in a spree of the post-war consensus.
The design and implementation of the Act were led by Richard Austin Butler, the head of the British Board of Education at the time. The works of leading thinkers in the education field, such as Tawney and Hadow, were widely implemented. These scholars can therefore be also listed as the key figures for the introduction of the new policies. Furthermore, Butlerâs colleagues Karl Mannheim and Fred Clarke should also be mentioned in this section, as both were acting as the architects and implementors for some of the policies of the Act (Sundermann, 2015). Scholars debate whether Mannheim is one of the main players, or simply part of the larger process, but his political links to the other two names are worthy of mentioning. Yet it is evident why Butler is the one whose name frequently appears right next to the Act, since his determination and political pressure were essential to getting the legislation passed. Throughout the entire process, Butler believed that he could and would get the approval of the law, despite potential cultural barriers and the opposition from political opponents.
The social context of the time suggested several trends for the British economy and demographics that might facilitate the understanding of the Actâs origins. Namely, the scientists anticipated the decline in the natality rates, making effective use of the manpower crucial. Thus even the politicians generally opposed to the egalitarian views, such as Winston Churchill, were convinced by the motivation of avoiding the loss of viable human resources. As the politicians and scholars feared the impact the demographic decline might have for the countryâs economy, it made them more inclined towards the progressive reforms.
Ideology
Ideologically, the Act was based heavily on civic and philosophical language, reinforcing the ideas of enlightenment and social equality. However, it would be a mistake to assume a revolutionary intent behind the project. As a wartime social reform, the Act largely aimed to strengthen the existing order by civic-mindedness and the integration of the potentially neglected into the British society as its functional members. Butler and his colleagues were diametrically opposed to the idea of the political crusade against the poor. Instead, they believed a compromise and the mutually beneficial relationship could and should be achieved to ensure the nationâs post-war prosperity.
The Christian values and progressive ideas widely utilized for the design of the Act were seen as integral to the socioeconomic, political tradition of the time. The national morale and collective sense of moral righteousness were on the rise as a response to the fascist threat. Hence it is natural that some of the ideas involved in the design of the Act might be seen as romantic or radical and frequently allude to the ideals of the ancient Greek philosophers. Yet, the legislators perceived their educational reform primarily as a way to strengthen the social order by introducing the marginalized communities to the institutionalization at schools (Sundermann, 2015). The educational institutions were seen as tools to achieve cultural cohesion and teach the working-class pupils respect for the traditional authority. In the British socioeconomic and cultural practice, such ideas are known as a commonwealth and relate to the ideas of restricted democracy that have greatly influenced the formation of the Act.
Butlerâs concern for the future of England was another strong ideological drive in his legal pursuits. Although the consequences and influences of the Act are contextually closer to post-war Britain, it is important to specify that World War II was still ongoing as of 1944. As a head of the British Department of Education, Butler aimed to utilize his power and influence to ensure the nationâs prosperity and safety in the foreseeable future, which appeared to be grim. The combination of the destructions of World War II and the anticipated demographic decline possessed an evident threat to Britainâs economic and cultural power. Thus, he wanted to introduce liberal reform in the controlled environment, and achieve a compromise between laziness-faire government and total regimentation.
Content
Most of the policies introduced in the Act were aimed at improving accessibility of the education to pupils from differently marginalized communities. The high-quality education was made free to all pupils by the policies of the Act. Potential concerns from the conservative political representatives were facilitated by the rise in the national morale when faced with the collective threat. The proposition of the free education was seen not only as a separate law, but as a step towards a nationally responsible educational system that would shape the priorities and principles of the British Nation. Such secondary education would be used to allow the students to fuel their interests, talents and inclinations into professional occupations they could later use for the benefit of the nation. The emphasis in the schools in lower income areas was made on subjects and skills that would prepare the pupils for working in agriculture, service-industry or production. All forms of work were presented as equally valuable to the nation and essential to maintain and uphold the ideas of commonwealth.
The Education Act of 1944 was transformative, emblematic legislation that revolutionized the educational system and started the larger change. It was the first legislation in the field of education that recognized and classified education for people with the special needs as its own form (Jarvis, 2017). Although discriminatory and ableist in the language used by modern standards, the policies of the Act demanded from the authorities to secure accommodation and appropriate additional assistance for the disabled students (Kikabhai, 2018). This was the first move towards the greater inclusivity that ensured the disabled students are facilitated in their access to education.
The Act also replaced the outdated separation of the education into the two categories by the modern division into primary, secondary, and further education. The main emphasis was placed on secondary education, as Butler identified it as a stage where âage, agility and aptitudeâ determine the future perspectives of a pupil (Gillard, 2021). Hence it was further divided into the three subtypes depending on the grades and overall academic success of each student. There were grammar schools that were modeled after the elite private schools and required rigorous entrance exams. The other two types included modern secondary schools with averagely talented students and the technical schools that prioritized the accumulation of practical skills in the less academically successful pupils (McCulloch, 2019). Despite the third category being, obviously, the less prestigious of the three, it remained an effective social mobility tool, since many of the pupils would graduate from the technical school straight into somewhat secured employment position. Such was considered a luxury in the uncertain post-war society and was embraced by the majority of the working class.
Other contents of the Act included the review of the religious education system in the country. As the earlier educational acts, the Act of 1944 maintained the obligatory collective worship in the beginning of the school day. However, it also ensured that no teacher would suffer for the religious causes in an attempt to ensure the sensible separation between Christianity and science. In an arguably the most inclusive gesture of the legislation, the Act mentioned alternatives to Christian services can be considered for the areas with large percentage of non-Christian immigrant population (Education – Education Act of 1944, 2021). It is essential to remember, however, that the religious education discussed in the Act is, first and foremost, Christian. It was seen as a pilar of the national morale and morality, and the main difference that separated the English educational system from the totalitarian regiments.
Effectiveness
Even Butlerâs contemporaries commented on how the Act of 1944 promoted the active citizenship and greater involvement in the national politics, particularly among the most affected groups. Overall, the contents of the legislation were designed and used to strengthen the community spirit and allow the pupils from working class backgrounds to achieve the necessary qualifications. Yet at the time of the Actâs introduction, some of the politicians and civilians alike were questioning its timing and necessity. In 1944, as stated above, the World War II was still ongoing, and most of the Britainâs resources were focused on the international, rather then national politics.
However, it was in response to this rhetoric that the main rationale in favor of the Actâs effectiveness originated. Despite enjoying its advantages as Europeâs first industrialized country, England was falling behind in the fields of raw technical progress when compared to Germany. The introduction of secondary education for all allowed England to increase the average qualifications of its manufacturers. The three-way separation into grammar, secondary and technical schools, however, was not particularly effective. Its implementation demonstrated that majority of the pupils were allocated to the average secondary schools that were not tied to any particular qualification. Considering the Actâs goal to strengthen the economy it becomes evident that although effective in general, it contained certain design features that were not performing its intended function.
Thus, ironically, one can say that perhaps the Actâs greatest failure can be linked to the lack of technical and practical understanding of its main creator. As mentioned previously, Butler was heavily reliant on the Greek philosophy and ideas of the restricted democracy and civic integration into functioning society (Doney, 2020). Within this perspective, the Act remains a tremendous success, having vastly improved accessibility of education to the British population and improving the social mobility mechanisms. Yet it lacks the more direct and functioning ties to the economic well-being, as commonwealth often remains a grey area when faced with the necessity of improving production rates. Furthermore, the tripartite system arguably created further barriers within the legislation that aimed to reduce them and understandably gained the least recognition on the national level. In the end, modern secondary schools began to aim to become grammar schools for all.
Conclusion
Despite several flaws in its design and somewhat conflicted, by the modern liberal standards, ideological explanation of its principles, the Educational Act of 1944 is a transformative reform. Itâs the ban on the fee system in the public schools across the country facilitated the availability of education for all more than anything prior or afterward. The ideas of civic integration into society of children from disadvantaged backgrounds were later utilized by many politicians, and such procedures are inseparable from education.
Although the legislation was not fully successful on the field of boosting the state of the British economy, it was instrumental in the restoration of the peaceful way of life. Many of the philosophers noted its impact on the continuous technical revolution within the nation and the way it aided in the decriminalization of the areas affected by war. There is no doubt that the increased availability of education and the benefits associated with it is a landmark for the progress and the evolution of the British educational system.
References
Black, L. and Pemberton, H., 2017. An Affluent Society?: Britain’s Post-War ‘Golden Age’ Revisited. Routledge.
Doney, J., 2020. For God and country: Butlerâs 1944 Education Act, by Elizabeth âLibiâ Sundermann. History of Education, pp.1-3.
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2021. Education – Education Act of 1944. Web.
Gillard, D., 2021. Education Act 1944 – full text. Web.
Jarvis, D., 2017. Education in the United Kingdom. International Review of Education, 64(2), pp.273-277.
Kikabhai, N., 2018. The Rhetoric of Widening Participation in Higher Education and it’s Impact: Ending the Barriers against Disabled People. Springer.
McCulloch, G., 2019. Educational Reform Legislation in the 20th Century. Routledge.
Meredith, S., 2020. A âsociety ⌠divisible into the blessed and the unblessedâ: Michael Young and Meritocracy in Postwar Britain. The Political Quarterly, 91(2), pp.379-387.
Roberts, K., 2020. Generation equity and inequity: gilded and jilted generations in Britain since 1945. Journal of Youth Studies, 24(2), pp.267-284.
Sundermann, E., 2015. For God and country. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.