Introduction
Teaching practice requires a person’s ability to respond to various teaching disciplines. For instance, one must understand concepts such as modes of learning, assessment, communication, and curriculum development. Additionally, the profession requires the ability to integrate such concepts. Tailor-making such concepts for learners is often regarded as fundamental.
An experienced teacher should master all the concepts to help learners perform at their best. To this end, a thorough examination of how the above concepts impact learning becomes necessary. Such an analysis helps teachers interconnect the concepts with their practice. A practitioner who understands these concepts benefits himself and the learners.
Theories, Principles, and Modes of Learning
Theories
Different theories, principles, and modes best describe the concept of learning. Theorists such as Jean Piaget argue that learning is dependent on perception, memory, and problem-solving skills (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019). In other words, Piaget suggests that optimum learning requires the learner’s ability to incorporate the above aspects. Albert Bandura, a decorated philosopher, argues that people learn from the social environment around them (Kruis, Seo, and Kim, 2019). The theory explains how learners acquire knowledge and skills from their surroundings.
Principles
Theories do not work in isolation as they depend on certain principles. The principle of active learning suggests that individuals can gain the most when they are actively involved, rather than passively (Metz et al., 2021). Active engagement is connected to both cognitive and social learning theories. Active engagement of a learner enables one to understand their perception, problem-solving ability, and how much they take from the environment.
Models
Learning can be achieved through various means and techniques. Bloom’s taxonomy model requires learning to accommodate a learner’s ability to memorize, evaluate, analyze, and understand (Arievitch, 2020). Therefore, learning should be tailored to consider a learner’s relationship with the above concepts.
Kolb’s learning style is yet another well-known learning model. It suggests that individuals prefer to absorb information (Biabani & Izadpanah, 2019). The preference is influenced by the ability to relate to concrete experience, abstract concepts, and active experimentation.
Using active experimentation as an example employs testing ideas and theories using fictitious problems (Biabani & Izapanah, 2019). Practical problem questions enable a learner to relate theory to practice. Therefore, educators are trained to understand how different modes affect their learners. Moreover, it is up to instructors to determine which model best meets the needs of their students.
Application
Theories
Theories, principles, and models of learning significantly influence the learning process in numerous ways. The cognitive theory regards memory as a vital tool for learning (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019). Memory refers to the process of storing and retrieving information when needed (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019). For example, cognitive theory suggests that learners must be given exercises to improve their ability to recall information.
Principles
Principles of learning can be linked to learning theories. The active engagement principle augments well with cognitive theory. Encouraging learners to actively participate in learning improves their ability to comprehend information (Metz et al., 2021). With practical examples, learners engage their minds in real-life situations that foster effective learning. Further, actively involving a learner effectively trains problem-solving skills (Metz et al., 2021). It cannot be overstated how crucial problem-based situations are to creative thinking.
Models
Learning models are used to determine how much knowledge or skills students acquire. Kolb’s learning model is based on an instructor knowing and accommodating a learner’s preferred learning style (Biabani & Izadpanah, 2019). Active experimentation, a tenet of Kolb’s model, affects learning as follows. Active experimentation is characterized by its affinity for testing theories and taking action (Biabani & Izadpanah, 2019). The model increases problem-solving skills by exposing learners to experiments.
Reflective observation is a key component of Kolb’s model. It refers to the ability to perceive or observe things in one’s surroundings and think about them (Biabani & Izadpanah, 2019). Learners with such preferences can be best taught in open environments. Open environments enable them to monitor objects closely and think critically about them. Further, they train their ability to analyze simple or complex concepts. Teachers should, therefore, understand how such concepts interlink and affect learning.
Criticism
Although learning theories, principles, and models are crucial for educational settings, they attract several criticisms. A consistent criticism of all the learning theories, principles, and models is that they are too focused on one area or perception of the human experience of learning (Wambsganss et al., 2022). Specific focus areas include behaviorism, constructivism, and cognitivism (Metz et al., 2021). Additionally, it is contestable whether scholars should seek a single unifying theory or model that provides an understanding of the various learning aspects or continue developing separate theories.
Moreover, individual theories and models are subject to criticism, rendering them inconsistent in educational contexts. Piaget’s theory presents several shortcomings, including overestimating adolescents’ abilities and underestimating infants’ capacities (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019). Moreover, the theorist neglects the importance of cultural and social interactions in a child’s cognitive development (Metz et al., 2021). Meanwhile, Albert Bandura’s social learning theory ignores biological states and nervous system responses.
Scientifically, it has been proven that some behaviors are inherited from parents to offspring (Kruis, Seo, and Kim, 2019). While Kolb’s learning model has a broad application, it fails to illustrate that empirical thinking has limitations and may lead to false conclusions (Biabani & Izadpanah, 2019). Despite the shortcomings of individual models and learning theories, they complement each other for effective learning outcomes.
Theories, Principles, and Modes of Communication
Theories
Communication is a necessary medium through which people exchange information. Various scholars have theorized how individuals exchange information or ideas. The linear model posits that communication is a one-way process (Hu & Liang, 2022). It involves a sender conveying a message to a recipient who decodes it and gives feedback (Hu & Liang, 2022). The linear model requires both parties to understand the contents of the message.
In other words, the sender must clearly state, and the recipient must clearly understand (Hu & Liang, 2022). The dialogic model is the most widely used in the world. It refers to the back-and-forth conveying of information and ideas (Serfontein & Bornman, 2022). The model requires similar social wiring for a conversation to make sense. Businesspersons are likely to engage in back-and-forth communication with capital markets and stakeholders (Serfontein & Bornman, 2022). To a layperson, such concepts may not make sense, which can hinder effective communication.
Principles
Principles of communication support theories and models of communication. Effective communication is premised on principles such as clarity, feedback, and active listening. Clarity, as a principle, dictates that communication should be clear and accommodate the audience (Re, 2019). Using the business and layperson example, clear communication must consider the differences of the audience.
Active listening is a crucial principle, as it significantly impacts feedback. It requires the full involvement of a listener and the ability to respond to what has been heard (Re, 2019). Active listeners trigger feedback that can be used to determine the effect of the communication. Good communication allows for the collection of feedback on how deeply a concept has been understood (Tanis, 2020). Feedback gauges many components, including clarity and listening skills, for the audience.
Application
Modes
Learning requires constant communication between an instructor and the learner. Consequently, the theories, models, and principles of communication affect learning. The dialogic mode utilizes back-and-forth exchanges between individuals (Serfontein & Bornman, 2022). When learners interact with instructors, they get a deeper understanding of concepts. Additionally, it helps them pay attention and participate actively, which are key elements under the cognitive theory (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019).
The linear mode has been criticized as less interactive. Due to its one-sided nature, it limits the attention and active contribution of learners (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019). The dialogic model should be preferred over the linear one to promote more interactive communication. Learning is anchored in the best interest of a learner (Hoidn & Manja Klemenčič, 2020). As a result, learning must have measures that guarantee optimal learning modes.
Principles
Communication principles such as clarity and feedback determine a learner’s depth of understanding. Clarity prevents misinterpretation of ideas among learners (Zainuddin et al., 2020). Moreover, learners gain the ability to understand and retain accurate information (Zainuddin et al., 2020). Therefore, clarity is indirectly connected to the cognitive theory, which focuses on a learner’s memory retention. The ability to learn and master correct information relies on how clearly the information is presented.
Feedback helps both learners and teachers understand strengths and weaknesses. Through feedback, teachers can determine whether their teaching methods suit the needs of learners (Tanis, 2020). Feedback also positively motivates learners and fosters improvement (Kuyyogsuy, 2019). Therefore, feedback can be said to be directly linked to the dialogic communication model. It involves learners giving responses to their teachers to improve learning and understanding.
Criticism
Many scholars criticize the various communication models discussed above. The linear communication model suggests that communication occurs in only one direction. Consequently, it fails to show how context and personal experiences impact communication in various dimensions (Hu & Liang, 2022). The dialogic model is considered the most effective and has numerous applications.
However, the model suggests that the meaning of conversations lies in people, not their words (Serfontein & Bornman, 2022). The perception may be ineffective for speakers who intend solely to use their words as a means of bargaining power, rather than their looks. The application of effective communication principles corrects each of the theories’ shortcomings.
Theories, Principles, and Modes of Assessment
Learner assessment is vital in measuring student progress in relation to the teaching method. Learner assessment refers to the process of obtaining feedback on strengths and weaknesses to enhance learning and understanding (Chien, Hwang, and Jong, 2020). Several theories, principles, and models can be used to explain assessment. The social constructive theory of assessment is notable. It denotes that learners should be evaluated based on their ability to interact socially (Azhari et al., 2020).
Theories
The cognitive theory of assessment suggests that a learner’s mental abilities can be gauged by assessing their knowledge, problem-solving, and comprehension skills (Makransky, Borre-Gude, and Mayer, 2019). The cognitive theory of assessment shares similar sentiments with the cognitive theory of learning. The two theories are centered around training the memory to retain and reproduce information. The theories explain how to best evaluate a learner’s progress. Evaluation should therefore be done on both social aspects and memory retention acumen.
Models
Learner assessment is based on various models that are religiously directed by principles. The models include Bloom’s Taxonomy and the Gibbs Reflective Cycle. The former categorizes skills from basic, such as remembering, to complex, such as evaluating (Arievitch, 2020). The model is used in designing an assessment that aligns with the students’ cognitive skills. In the latter model, learners reflect on their progress and give feedback to their instructors (Markkanen et al., 2020). The method invites learners to participate in their own evaluation. Moreover, they also gain assessment skills through such interactions.
Principles
The guiding principles of assessment include flexibility and transparency. A proper assessment should be flexible enough to accommodate different learning styles (Rege, 2022). It should also be transparent and objective, free from biases and favoritism (Rege, 2022). Learner assessment should, therefore, strictly adhere to principles for optimal results.
Application
Theories
The discussed theories, principles, and models of assessment affect learning in the following ways. The social constructive theory of assessment focuses on societal interactions. Such a mode of evaluation invites students to own both the learning and grading process (Shi et al., 2019). The approach utilizes feedback from learners, making it a participatory process. The theory suggests working together in groups, thus promoting peer assessment and social interaction skills (Shi et al., 2019).
The cognitive theory centers on a learner’s mental abilities. It helps grade the ability to memorize and reproduce information (Cloonan & Fingeret, 2019). The method helps teachers develop teaching strategies that enhance students’ mental resilience. Additionally, both the learner and the teacher understand the strengths and weaknesses of the modes employed. A teacher ought to apply theories that offer optimal learner assessment.
Principles
Principles of assessment are important because they provide guidance on how to properly evaluate learners. The flexibility principle requires instructors to gauge other elements of learning, rather than focusing solely on one (Rege, 2022). Such an assessment is inclusive, allowing students to take pride in their strengths and acknowledge their weaknesses. It also motivates learners to improve on their weaknesses for better performance (Rege, 2022).
Transparency, on the other hand, ensures that the assessment is objective and unbiased. Sometimes, teachers can perpetrate bias or favoritism when evaluating students (Royce et al., 2022). They must be guided by such principles to help learners grow. Modes of learning have their fair share of impacts.
The Gibbs Reflective Cycle encourages self-evaluation and realization among students (Markkanen et al., 2020). As a result, learners become more aware of their weaknesses and strengths. Assessment should, therefore, integrate principles and modes of assessment to ensure the proper evaluation of learners.
Criticism
The social constructive theory is the most reliable, but it has one major shortcoming. The model is considered too bold to conceptualize the influence of reality on humans (Markkanen et al., 2020). Consequently, it forces the learners to depend on others and limits their ability to think and work independently. Over-reliance on other students can be detrimental to creative thinking and overall class performance (Royce et al., 2022).
While the cognitive assessment theory offers the best outcome, it fails to consider social factors, including a culture that affects one’s perception and thinking. Therefore, educators must critically evaluate an effective assessment model based on their learners’ expectations and overall teaching objectives.
Theories and Models of Curriculum Development
Theories
Effective teaching is achieved through systematic planning methods such as curriculum development. Curriculum development refers to a purposeful and progressive sorting of learning materials for enhanced learning (Ji, 2020). Various theories inform the selection of a curriculum in institutions. The social reconstruction theory suggests that education is an engine for social change (Valladares, 2021). The theory views learning as a tool to campaign against social inequalities.
The technological theory posits that learning equips individuals with practical problem-solving skills applicable to their daily lives (Valladares, 2021). Practical examples given in schools enable learners to relate to other problems. With the requisite problem-solving skills, they can circumvent daily challenges in life. Curricula should be designed to enable learners to reach their full potential.
Models
Curriculum development can take various models that are student-needs-based. The Tyler model requires a clear statement of objectives and choice of content (Dhanapala, 2021). It also requires a constant review of the curriculum to best meet the needs of learners (Dhanapala, 2021). Practitioners can deduce objectives that meet student needs based on their experiences.
The backward design model emphasizes beginning with the end goal and fine-tuning activities to achieve it (Dhanapala, 2021). It is safe to argue that better planning can be made with the end in mind. It is easy to set small, achievable goals for learners that propel them towards the bigger goal. Learners’ curriculum influences how teaching is conducted. A good curriculum considers the objectives and learning methods that best suit learners.
Application
Theories
Teachers and instructors are required to understand what curricula suit students. To do that, they have to engage their minds with the available theories of curriculum development. The social reconstruction theory views learning as a tool for positive change in society (Valladares, 2021). All teachers hope their students will be good ambassadors of change. With that, they craft a curriculum that enables learners to learn from societal ills.
Students can devise responses that drive change by utilizing problem-solving skills. The reconstruction theory is closely linked to the technology theory. They both rely on problem-solving skills obtained through learning. Teachers are inclined to choose activities that build on problem-solving skills rather than relying on theory. It is essential to consider other theories that can complement the two.
Models
Curriculum development models help both teachers and learners. The Tyler model uses objectives and content organization to plan (Dhanapala, 2021). An instructor can organize teaching aids and materials that suit learners and objectives. In addition, evaluating content helps identify areas that work well and those that do not.
The backward design seeks to have the end in mind. To a practitioner, it enables them to visualize and plan bigger for students. The steps taken are thus thoroughly thought through and cannot jeopardize progress.
For better results, applying both techniques is likely to yield tremendous results. From a personal perspective, using the Backward Design to guide the Tyler model should be embraced. The two modes not only guarantee improved results but also organized planning.
Theories and Models of Reflective Evaluation
Students may sometimes be required to think about their school lives. At the heart of such thinking is the art of reflective thinking. It refers to the ability of students to think critically about their thought processes (Erdogan, 2019). Reflective thinking is an artistic tool that helps learners understand what they know and what they do not (Erdogan, 2019).
Theories
Theories have been proposed to explain how such reflection is achieved and its influence. The cognitive apprenticeship theory states that people learn by imitating more experienced or senior people (Minshew, Olsen, and McLaughlin, 2021). Learners pick both good and bad traits from the senior and experienced people around them.
The theory of action can also explain the phenomenon of reflective thinking. It posits that reflective evaluation enables students to connect their actions to the resultant outcomes (Slade et al., 2019). The theories apply to how teachers and other senior staff members impact students.
Methods
Scholars have devised various methods to facilitate reflective evaluation. Gibb’s reflective cycle includes feelings, description, evaluation, and analysis (Adeani, Febriani, and Syafryadin, 2020). Learners describe their situations, control their feelings, and evaluate possible solutions to their situations (Adeani, Febriani, and Syafryadin, 2020). The model helps learners control their emotions and enables them to describe what affects them.
Ultimately, it empowers learners to understand complex situations from all angles. The reflective judgement model demands critical thinking and reasoning skills to adapt to situations (Roll & Ifenthaler, 2021). The theory banks on individual experience as a determinant of sound reasoning. In other words, the more learners are exposed to the process, the more advanced skills they develop. Reflective thinking is a skill that is gradually developed and takes time to mature.
Application
The teaching profession routinely puts the concepts of reflective evaluation to the test. As a result, it helps shape learning in various positive ways. Reflective thinking encourages students to engage with their conscience in any action they take (Chen, Hwang, and Chang, 2019). Students can develop an appreciation for responsibility and accountability at an early age.
It also helps raise learners who consider the consequences of their actions before taking action. Teachers can use student feedback from reflective exercises to plan better. The feedback informs how to improve student belonging and student learning. For most students, reflection invites them to connect with their inner selves. Learning how to relay such feedback to their instructors is a huge boost to learners.
A notable positive would be students’ ability to identify which teaching mode works effectively for them. Deeply engaging the mind results in the realization of the teaching methods that students prefer (Dwijayani, 2019). Reflective thinking also helps teachers get feedback from students on their attitude toward the teaching modalities (Dwijayani, 2019). Instructors can then use their experience to formulate practices that meet students’ needs.
As a positive outcome, teachers and learners benefit simultaneously. Additionally, it makes learning more attractive and salient. A conducive learning environment is one in which both the instructor and learner understand each other. When thoughts are aligned, optimum learning becomes a guarantee. All teachers and learners should adopt reflective thinking to enhance their learning.
Criticism
Although reflective evaluation is key in solving educational problems for educators and learners, the models present some common shortcomings. Firstly, reflective evaluation outcomes can be biased since they are based on personal opinions. Secondly, models such as Gibbs’ reflective cycle lead to superficial reflections.
Consequently, the outcome can be ineffective for personal and professional development (Adeani, Febriani, and Syafryadin, 2020). Lastly, reflective evaluation models may require a significant amount of time to apply. Therefore, educators and learners may have less time for productive activities when utilizing the various models of reflective evaluation.
Conclusion
Learning entails numerous complex concepts that need to be carefully canvassed. Both students and instructors must be part of unpacking such concepts. They include understanding theories, models, and principles of particular items. The items include models of learning, communication, and assessment, among other key concepts.
Evaluating how such items and concepts relate to each other is crucial for any learning process. Teachers are required to have more experience and understanding of the concepts. While unpacking them for students, it is essential to consider that some skills are developed gradually. Lastly, teachers are encouraged to be flexible and adapt to models that best suit the needs of their students.
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